CUET UG 2025 Philosophy Previous Year Solved Paper

The correct answer is Option 3. Heidegger
The book Being and Time was written by Martin Heidegger in 1927. It is
one of the most influential works in existential and phenomenological
philosophy. In this book, Heidegger explores the nature of “Being” (Dasein)
— human existence — and how humans experience and interpret their
existence in the world.

The correct answer is Option 3. Heraclitus
Heraclitus proposed the theory of Becoming, which states that change is the
fundamental nature of reality. According to him, everything in the universe
is in a constant state of flux — nothing remains the same. He expressed this
idea through his famous saying, “You cannot step into the same river twice.”
In contrast, Parmenides believed in the theory of Being, which emphasizes
permanence and denies real change.

The correct answer is Option 1. Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza proposed the idea of “Intellectual Love of God” (Amor Dei
Intellectualis) in his work Ethics. He believed that true happiness and
freedom come from understanding the universe through reason, which
leads to a deep intellectual and emotional love for God, who for Spinoza is
not a personal deity but the infinite substance or Nature (Deus sive Natura)
itself.
Thus, by understanding the order of nature, one experiences the intellectual
love of God, representing unity with the whole of existence.

The correct answer is Option 4. Apology
The “Apology” is a work written by Plato, not Aristotle. It records the
defense speech of Socrates during his trial in Athens, where he was accused
of corrupting the youth and impiety.
The other works — Politics, Metaphysics, and Organon — are authored by
Aristotle, covering topics such as political theory, the nature of reality, and
logic, respectively.

The correct answer is Option 1. Kumarila
Kumarila Bhatta, a key philosopher of the Purva Mimamsa school,
considered the self (Atman) to be the potency or capacity for knowledge
rather than knowledge itself. According to him, the self is a permanent,
conscious being that possesses the ability to know but is not identical with
consciousness.
In contrast, Advaita Vedanta (Sankaracharya) views the self as pure
consciousness, while Buddha denies a permanent self (Anatta doctrine),
and Patanjali identifies the self with Purusha, the pure witness
consciousness.

The correct answer is Option 3. Visistadvaita
According to Ramanuja’s Visistadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism), God
(Brahman) is both the material cause and the efficient cause of the universe.
This means that God creates the manifold world out of His own being, while
still remaining unchanged in essence.
The universe and individual souls are considered real parts (modes) of God
— they exist in and through Him, like body and soul. In contrast, Advaita
sees the world as illusory (Maya), Samkhya is atheistic and dualistic, and
Carvaka denies God altogether.

The correct answer is Option 2. Mimamsa school
The Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy accepted Arthapatti (postulation
or presumption) as a distinct pramāṇa (means of valid knowledge).
Arthapatti refers to knowledge gained by presuming an explanation to
reconcile two seemingly inconsistent facts.
For example:
If a person who never eats during the day is observed to be healthy and
gaining weight, one can infer that he must be eating at night — this is
Arthapatti.
In contrast:
• Vaisesika and Samkhya accept only perception and inference,
• Carvaka accepts only perception (Pratyaksha) as valid knowledge.

The correct answer is Option 1. Maybe universal or maybe particular
In a valid syllogism, when both premises are universal propositions, the
conclusion can be either universal or particular, depending on the mood and
figure of the syllogism.
For example:
• All men are mortal. All Greeks are men. ∴ All Greeks are mortal. →
Universal conclusion
• All men are mortal. All men are animals. ∴ Some animals are mortal. →
Particular conclusion
Hence, universal premises do not guarantee that the conclusion will always
be universal; it may be universal or particular.

The correct answer is Option 4. Verbal Testimonies

In Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, the main sources of Knowledge are:
• Sensibility (intuition): through which we receive sense data,
• Understanding: which organizes these sensations using concepts, and
• Reason: which helps in forming higher principles and ideas.
Verbal Testimonies (or Śabda pramāṇa) are accepted in Indian philosophy,
not in Kant’s system. Kant’s theory is based on how the mind structures
experience, not on external testimony or authority.

The correct answer is Option 4. Verbal Testimonies
According to Immanuel Kant, knowledge arises from the cooperation of two
main faculties — Sensibility and Understanding, guided by Reason.
• Sensibility provides raw data through sense experience.
• Understanding organizes this data into concepts.
• Reason draws conclusions and unifies knowledge into principles.
However, Verbal Testimonies are not recognized by Kant as a valid source of
knowledge. This idea belongs to certain Indian philosophical systems, not to
Kant’s critical philosophy.

The correct answer is Option 3. The two events have necessary internal
connection.
According to David Hume, causality is based on habit or constant
conjunction, not on any necessary internal connection between events.
He stated that when one event (the cause) is constantly followed by another
(the effect), we expect the second to follow the first — but this is only due
to mental association, not an actual necessary link in nature.
Thus, for Hume, causality involves:
• Conjunction of events,
• Proximity (contiguity) in time and space, and

• Constant succession,
but not a necessary internal connection.

The correct answer is Option 3. Berkeley
The phrase “To be is to be perceived” (Esse est percipi) was proposed by
George Berkeley, an idealist philosopher. He argued that material objects do
not exist independently of the mind; they exist only as long as they are
perceived by someone.
According to Berkeley, all that exists are minds and their ideas — the
external world is a collection of perceptions sustained by God’s eternal
perception, ensuring that things continue to exist even when no human
observes them.

The correct answer is Option 1. Hume
This statement was given by David Hume, an empiricist philosopher, who
believed that all knowledge originates from experience. According to him,
the mind is like a blank slate at birth, and all ideas come from two sources:
• Outward impressions: sensations we get from the external world
(through sight, touch, hearing, etc.).
• Inward impressions: internal experiences such as emotions, desires,
and thoughts.
Thus, for Hume, thinking materials (ideas) are derived entirely from
impressions, making experience the foundation of human knowledge.

The correct answer is Option 2. Upanishad
The Upanishads are also known as the Vedanta, meaning the “end of the
Vedas.” This term signifies both their position at the end of the Vedic texts
and their philosophical essence, which represents the culmination of Vedic

thought. The Upanishads focus on spiritual knowledge (Jnana) and explore
concepts such as Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (self), and their unity.
While the Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Aranyakas deal mainly with rituals and
hymns, the Upanishads emphasize philosophical inquiry and self-realization.

The correct answer is Option 1. Vedanta System
The Vedanta system is also known as Uttara Mimamsa, which means the
“later inquiry” into the Vedas. It focuses on the philosophical and spiritual
teachings found mainly in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad
Gita.
While the Purva Mimamsa (earlier inquiry) emphasizes rituals and actions
(karma-kanda) from the Vedas, the Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) deals with
knowledge and realization (jnana-kanda) — the understanding of Brahman
(ultimate reality) and Atman (self).
Hence, Vedanta is rightly called the Uttara Mimamsa system.

The correct answer is Option 3. Socrates
The statement “An unexamined life is not worth living” was made by
Socrates during his trial in Athens, as recorded in Plato’s “Apology.”
By this, Socrates meant that true human fulfillment comes from self-
reflection, critical thinking, and the pursuit of wisdom and virtue. Living
without questioning one’s beliefs, values, and actions, he argued, would be
meaningless. His philosophy emphasized that self-knowledge is the
foundation of a moral and meaningful life.

The correct answer is Option 2. The Appeal to Emotion
The Argument Ad Populum, also known as the Appeal to Emotion or Appeal
to the People, is an informal fallacy that tries to persuade people by

appealing to their emotions, popular opinions, or prejudices, rather than by
using logical reasoning.
For example:
“Everyone believes this product is the best, so it must be true!”
Here, instead of presenting evidence, the argument relies on emotional
appeal and the popularity of belief, making it a fallacy of relevance.

The correct answer is Option 4. Kant
The moral maxim “Duty for duty’s sake” was propounded by Immanuel
Kant, the German philosopher. According to Kant’s deontological ethics, the
moral worth of an action lies not in its consequences but in the intention
behind it.
He argued that a truly moral action is one performed out of a sense of duty,
guided by the categorical imperative — a universal moral law that applies to
all rational beings. Thus, one should act morally because it is the right thing
to do, not for personal gain or emotional satisfaction.

The correct answer is Option 1. Happiness
In Aristotle’s “Nicomachean Ethics,” the central concept is Happiness
(Eudaimonia), which he defines as the highest good and the ultimate
purpose (telos) of human life.
Aristotle explains that happiness is achieved through the practice of virtue
(arete) — living a life of moral and intellectual excellence in accordance
with reason. Unlike mere pleasure, happiness for Aristotle is a state of
flourishing and fulfillment that comes from living a virtuous and rational
life.

The correct answer is Option 4. Phenomenal

The Socratic Method, developed by Socrates, is a way of seeking knowledge
through questioning and dialogue. It involves:
• A skeptical attitude, questioning assumptions,
• A conversational approach, using discussion to explore ideas, and
• A deductive reasoning process, moving from general principles to
specific conclusions.
However, the “Phenomenal” approach is not part of the Socratic method. It
belongs to phenomenology, a later philosophical tradition associated with
thinkers like Husserl and Heidegger.

The correct answer is Option 2. Altruistic Surrogacy
Under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 in India, commercial surrogacy
— where a surrogate mother is paid beyond medical expenses — is banned.
Only altruistic surrogacy is legally permitted.
In altruistic surrogacy, a woman (usually a close relative) carries the child
without any monetary compensation, except for medical and insurance
costs.
This law aims to prevent exploitation of women and ensure that surrogacy
remains an ethical and compassionate act rather than a commercial
transaction.

The correct answer is Option 2. Bentham
The statement “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two
sovereign masters, pain and pleasure” was made by Jeremy Bentham, the
founder of Utilitarianism.
Bentham believed that all human actions are motivated by the desire to
seek pleasure and avoid pain. According to his hedonistic principle, an
action is morally right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest
number. Thus, pleasure and pain are the ultimate measures of morality and
human behavior.

The correct answer is Option 3. An Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
The Appeal to Inappropriate Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam)
occurs when someone supports a claim by citing an authority who is not
qualified or credible in that specific field.
For example:
“A famous actor says this medicine works, so it must be effective.”
Here, the actor’s opinion is not credible because they are not an expert in
medicine.
This fallacy relies on misplaced trust in authority rather than valid
reasoning or evidence.

The correct answer is Option 2. Descartes
René Descartes stated that “the existence of bodies presupposes extension,”
meaning that the essential property of physical matter (res extensa) is
extension — the ability to occupy space and have length, breadth, and
depth.
According to Descartes, all material things can be understood in terms of
extension and motion, while the mind (res cogitans) is characterized by
thinking. This forms the basis of his dualism, where mind and body are
distinct substances — one thinking and the other extended.

The correct answer is Option 4. Doctrine of Monads
The Doctrine of Monads was proposed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
According to this theory, the universe is made up of infinite simple
substances called monads — indivisible, immaterial, and dynamic units of
force.

Each monad reflects the entire universe in itself and operates
independently, guided by pre-established harmony rather than physical
interaction. Hence, the statement that “body is a plurality of simple forces”
expresses Leibniz’s idea that there is no single force in nature, but many
individual monads forming the structure of reality.

The correct answer is Option 1. Spinoza
The Doctrine of Occasionalism is most closely associated with philosophers
like Malebranche, but among the given options, Spinoza’s view aligns most
closely with it.
According to Occasionalism, God is the only true cause, and what appear to
be causal relations between physical and mental events are actually
“occasions” for God’s action. Similarly, Spinoza believed in a single substance
— God or Nature (Deus sive Natura) — which is the cause of everything that
exists.
Thus, while Spinoza’s system is not pure occasionalism, his monistic view
that God is the one true cause of all things reflects the same underlying
principle — that no finite thing has independent causal power.

The correct answer is Option 1. They can be valid or invalid.
A deductive argument is one in which the conclusion necessarily follows
from the premises. Its correctness is judged by validity and soundness, not
by strength or weakness.
• A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from
the premises.
• It is invalid if the conclusion does not logically follow.
Truth or falsity applies to statements (propositions), not to arguments.
In contrast, inductive arguments are evaluated as strong or weak, depending
on the probability of the conclusion.

The correct answer is Option 4. Argument Ad Petitio Principii
Argument Ad Petitio Principii, also known as Begging the Question, is not a
fallacy of relevance but a fallacy of presumption. It occurs when the
conclusion is assumed in the premises, leading to circular reasoning.
Example:
“God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true because it is the
word of God.”
On the other hand, Argument Ad Populum (appeal to the people), Ad
Misericordiam (appeal to pity), and Ad Baculum (appeal to force) are
fallacies of relevance, because they distract from logical reasoning by
appealing to emotion, fear, or popularity instead of evidence.

The correct answer is Option 2. It has three terms.
A categorical syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning consisting of two
premises and one conclusion, and it always contains three terms:
1. Major term – the predicate of the conclusion.
2. Minor term – the subject of the conclusion.
3. Middle term – the term that appears in both premises but not in the
conclusion.
For example:
• All men are mortal. (Major premise)
• Socrates is a man. (Minor premise)
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)
Here, “mortal,” “Socrates,” and “man” are the three terms.

The correct answer is Option 2. Predicate term is distributed.
The statement “Some students are not scholarship holders” is an O-
proposition in traditional logic (a particular negative statement).
In an O-proposition:
• The subject term (students) is undistributed because it refers only to
some members of the class.
• The predicate term (scholarship holders) is distributed because the
statement denies the predicate for all members of that group.
Hence, in this example, only the predicate term is distributed.

The correct answer is Option 3. Law of Consistency
In classical logic, there are three fundamental Laws of Thought:
1. Law of Identity – A thing is what it is. (A is A)
2. Law of Non-Contradiction – A statement cannot be both true and false
at the same time. (A cannot be both A and not-A)
3. Law of Excluded Middle – Every statement is either true or false;
there is no middle ground. (Either A or not-A)
The Law of Consistency is not one of the traditional three laws of thought,
though it is related in meaning to the Law of Non-Contradiction.

The correct answer is Option 1. Prasna
In the Nyaya system of Indian philosophy, inference (Anumana) is explained
through a five-step process known as the Panchāvayava. The five
components are:
1. Pratijna – Proposition (e.g., There is fire on the hill).

2. Hetu – Reason (Because there is smoke).
3. Udaharana – Example (Wherever there is smoke, there is fire — like
in a kitchen).
4. Upanaya – Application (There is smoke on the hill).
5. Nigamana – Conclusion (Therefore, there is fire on the hill).
Prasna (meaning question) is not part of this sequence, hence it is not an
element of Nyaya inference.

The correct answer is Option 4. Complex Question
The Fallacy of Complex Question (also called a loaded question) is one of
the Fallacies of Presumption, where the question assumes something that
has not been proven or accepted.
For example:
“Have you stopped cheating on exams?”
This question presupposes guilt, regardless of how the person answers.
In contrast:
• Irrelevant Conclusion is a fallacy of relevance,
• Fallacy of Composition and Fallacy of Accent are fallacies of ambiguity,
not presumption.

The correct answer is Option 3. Fallacy of Amphiboly
The Fallacy of Amphiboly occurs when the entire statement is ambiguous
because of faulty grammar, sentence structure, or punctuation, leading to
misinterpretation.
For example:
“The teacher said the student is brilliant.”

(It is unclear whether the teacher means that the student is brilliant or that
someone said the teacher is brilliant.)
In contrast:
• Fallacy of Equivocation involves ambiguity in a single word or term.
• Fallacy of Accent arises from emphasis or tone changes.
• Fallacy of Accident deals with misapplication of a general rule to a
specific case.

The correct answer is Option 1. Deductive Argument
The notion of validity or invalidity applies specifically to deductive
arguments.
A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily follows from the
premises — that is, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be
true. If this logical connection fails, the argument is invalid.
In contrast, inductive arguments deal with probability, not necessity. They
are judged as strong or weak, depending on how likely the conclusion is
given the premises — not valid or invalid.

The correct answer is Option 1. Plato
The book “Laws” was written by Plato, one of the greatest philosophers of
ancient Greece. It is his last and longest dialogue, serving as a continuation
of his earlier work “The Republic.”
While The Republic focuses on the ideal state governed by philosopher-
kings, Laws deals with a practical system of governance based on laws and
institutions suitable for real societies.
Unlike The Republic, where Socrates leads the discussion, in Laws the
conversation is conducted by an Athenian Stranger, indicating a more
mature and realistic political vision.

The correct answer is Option 3. Annihilation of Caste
The work “Annihilation of Caste” was written by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, not
Mahatma Gandhi. It is a powerful critique of the Hindu caste system and
calls for its complete eradication.
On the other hand, Gandhian philosophy centers around:
• Non-violence (Ahimsa): The principle of avoiding harm in thought,
word, and action.
• Satyagraha: The method of truth and non-violent resistance against
injustice.
• Swaraj: The idea of self-rule and moral independence.
Thus, while Gandhi sought reform within Hinduism through non-violence
and moral awakening, Ambedkar’s “Annihilation of Caste” advocated for a
complete social revolution — making it not a part of Gandhian philosophy.

The correct answer is Option 1. Simone de Beauvoir
The book “The Second Sex”, written by Simone de Beauvoir in 1949, is a
foundational text in feminist philosophy and existentialism.
In this work, Beauvoir examines how society has historically treated
women as the “Other” — secondary to men — and argues that one is not
born a woman but becomes one through social conditioning.
She explores themes of freedom, oppression, and gender roles, emphasizing
that women must assert their existential freedom to achieve equality.

The correct answer is Option 1. The Religion of Man
Rabindranath Tagore proposed the idea of “The Religion of Man”, which he
elaborated in his famous work and lecture series by the same name,
delivered at Oxford University in 1930.

Tagore’s philosophy emphasizes:
• The divinity within human beings rather than an external God.
• A belief in the unity of humanity and harmony with nature.
• Spiritual realization through love, creativity, and service to mankind,
not through rigid rituals or dogmas.
Thus, “The Religion of Man” represents Tagore’s humanistic and universal
spiritual vision, focusing on the moral and spiritual growth of the individual
in connection with all humanity.

The correct answer is Option 3. Hobbes
The Latin phrase “Homo homini lupus”, meaning “Man is a wolf to man” or
“Man is a ferocious animal,” is associated with Thomas Hobbes.
Hobbes used this idea to describe the natural state of human beings — a
condition of chaos, competition, and conflict, where life is “solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short.”
According to Hobbes:
• Humans are driven by self-interest and fear, leading to constant
struggle.
• To escape this anarchic state, individuals enter into a social contract,
surrendering some freedom to a sovereign authority for the sake of
peace and security.
Thus, Hobbes’s view of human nature as inherently selfish and aggressive
underpins his political philosophy in his seminal work “Leviathan” (1651).

The correct answer is Option 2. Nama-Rupa
In Buddhist philosophy, the Wheel of Causation (Pratītyasamutpāda)
describes the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, explaining how life
and suffering arise in a continuous cycle.

These links are divided into past life, present life, and future life causes and
effects.
• Present life links include: Trsna (Craving), Upadana (Clinging), Bhava
(Becoming), Jati (Birth), and Jara-marana (Old age and death), along
with Sadayatana (Six sense bases) and Vedanā (Feeling).
• Nama-Rupa (Mind and Body), however, belongs to the past life links,
as it represents the formation of the psychophysical being that arises
due to previous karma.
Hence, Nama-Rupa is not considered a present life link in the Buddhist
Causal Wheel.

The correct answer is Option 2. Hume
David Hume, an empiricist philosopher, believed that all human knowledge
originates from experience and that certainty beyond direct observation is
impossible.
According to Hume:
• Mathematical and logical reasoning gives relations of ideas, which are
certain only within the system of definitions.
• However, when applied to the real world, even mathematical
knowledge becomes probable, not absolutely certain, because our
experience cannot guarantee unchanging laws of nature.
Thus, Hume argued that mathematical knowledge, like all other forms of
reasoning about the world, is based on habit and probability, not on
absolute necessity or intuition.

The correct answer is Option 3. Kant
Immanuel Kant emphasized that understanding the relationship among will,
authority, and reason is not merely an intellectual exercise but also a moral
duty — a task and an obligation for every rational being.
According to Kant:

• Reason provides the foundation for moral law.
• Will must act in accordance with reason, not desire.
• Authority comes from the moral law itself, which commands
unconditionally — this is what Kant calls the Categorical Imperative.
Hence, for Kant, moral thinking is an active process of self-discipline, where
one must align the will with rational moral principles.
This makes moral reflection both a process of reasoning and an ethical
responsibility.

The correct answer is Option 4. Samsaya
In Indian philosophy, particularly in Nyaya, philosophical debates are
classified into three main methods of argumentation:
1. Vada – The method of discussion aimed at discovering truth through
rational dialogue between opponents.
2. Jalpa – The method of disputation, where the goal is to defeat the
opponent, not necessarily to find truth.
3. Vitanda – The method of destructive criticism, where one refutes the
opponent’s argument without presenting a thesis of one’s own.
On the other hand, Samsaya means doubt or uncertainty — it refers to a
mental state of confusion about an issue, not a form of debate.
Hence, Samsaya is not considered a method of philosophical debate.

The correct answer is Option 1. A, C, B, D
The philosophers listed belong to the Pre-Socratic period of ancient Greek
philosophy, and their correct chronological order is as follows:
1. Thales (c. 624–546 BCE) – Considered the father of Western
philosophy; he proposed that water is the fundamental principle
(archê) of all things.

2. Anaximander (c. 610–546 BCE) – A student of Thales; he proposed
that the apeiron (the infinite or boundless) is the origin of all things.
3. Anaximenes (c. 585–528 BCE) – A disciple of Anaximander; he
believed that air (pneuma) is the basic substance of the universe.
4. Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) – Later philosopher who founded the
Pythagorean school, emphasizing numbers and mathematical
harmony as the basis of reality.
Hence, the correct sequence is: A (Thales), C (Anaximander), B
(Anaximenes), D (Pythagoras).

The correct answer is Option 2. D, B, C, A
According to Plato’s theory of knowledge (Epistemology), presented in The
Republic (Book VI–VII), knowledge can be divided into four levels arranged
from highest to lowest:
1. Rational Insight (Noesis) – The highest form of knowledge, achieved
through direct intellectual intuition of the Forms (Ideas), especially
the Form of the Good.
2. Discursive Intellect (Dianoia) – The level of reasoning or
understanding, such as mathematical thinking, which depends on
hypotheses but moves towards logical truths.
3. Belief (Pistis) – The level of opinion or faith based on perception of
physical objects; it involves conviction but not true knowledge.
4. Conjecture (Eikasia) – The lowest level, consisting of mere
imagination, illusion, or guesswork, such as shadows or reflections.
Thus, the correct order from highest to lowest is: D (Rational Insights), B
(Discursive Intellect), C (Belief), A (Conjecture).

The correct answer is Option 3. B, A, C, D
The stages of moral development of an individual can be understood as a
progression from primitive instincts to reflective ethical reasoning.

The sequence reflects an increasing level of moral awareness and
reasoning:
1. Level of Instinct (B) – The most basic stage, where actions are driven
by biological impulses and desires without moral reflection.
2. Level of Custom (A) – At this stage, behavior conforms to social norms
and traditions; morality is based on what society approves.
3. Level of Reflection (C) – Here, the individual begins to question
customs and moral rules, engaging in rational reflection about right
and wrong.
4. Level of Cultural Relativism (D) – The highest stage, where one
recognizes that moral codes differ among cultures and develops a
broad, tolerant, and critical moral understanding.
Hence, the correct order of stages is: B (Instinct) → A (Custom) → C
(Reflection) → D (Cultural Relativism)

The correct answer is Option 1. A, C, D, B
The ethical theories listed developed in different historical periods. The
chronological order is as follows:
1. Stoicism (A) – Originated in Ancient Greece (3rd century BCE),
founded by Zeno of Citium. It emphasizes virtue, reason, and self-
control as the path to happiness.
2. Kantian Deontology (C) – Proposed by Immanuel Kant in the 18th
century (18th century CE). It focuses on duty (deon) and the moral
law, guided by the Categorical Imperative.
3. Utilitarianism (D) – Developed by Jeremy Bentham and later John
Stuart Mill in the 19th century. It emphasizes that the morality of
actions depends on their utility or consequences (the greatest
happiness principle).
4. Emotivism (B) – Emerged in the 20th century, mainly through A.J.
Ayer and C.L. Stevenson, asserting that moral judgments express
emotions rather than objective facts.

Hence, the correct chronological order is: A (Stoicism) → C (Kantian
Deontology) → D (Utilitarianism) → B (Emotivism).

The correct answer is Option 4. D, C, A, B
In the shorter truth-table test, first reduce the argument to a single
conditional “If (premises), then (conclusion)” (D).
Then assume that conditional is false (C), which requires antecedent true
and consequent false (A).
Finally, try to assign consistent truth values to all variables (B). If a
consistent assignment exists, the form is invalid; if none is possible, it is
valid.

The correct answer is Option 2. A, B and D only
The books that belong to Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy are:
• A. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals – This is Kant’s
foundational work on ethics where he develops the idea of the
Categorical Imperative, establishing the basis of moral duty.
• B. Critique of Practical Reason – This continues Kant’s moral
philosophy, exploring practical reason and the principles of moral law
and freedom.
• D. Metaphysics of Morals – A later work where Kant elaborates on
moral duties and rights in greater detail.
C. Critique of Judgment belongs to aesthetic and teleological philosophy, not
moral philosophy.
Hence, the correct answer is A (Groundwork), B (Critique of Practical
Reason), and D (Metaphysics of Morals).